Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon reshaped Europe from Portugal to Russia. Austerlitz, Jena, and Wagram established French dominance. The disastrous Russian campaign (1812) and coalition at Waterloo (1815) ended the empire. The Congress of Vienna redrew Europe.
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Belligerents
- French Empire (Napoleon)
- Britain
- Russia
- Austria
- Prussia
- Spain
Casualties
~3.5–6 million
Key events
- 1805 — Trafalgar / Austerlitz
- 1812 — Russian campaign loses 500,000+ men
- 1815 — Waterloo
Aftermath
Congress of Vienna (1815) produced ~40 years of great-power peace. Napoleonic Code remains the basis of civil law in much of the world. Spread nationalism across Europe — German and Italian unification followed within 60 years. Latin American independence movements emerged from Spanish weakness. Britain became the global hegemon for the next century.
Weapons & matériel
- Charleville musket (3 rounds/min, 100m effective)
- 12-pounder field gun ('Napoleon's daughters')
- Bayonet charge
- Cuirassier heavy cavalry
- Early military rocket (Congreve)
Technology
Levée en masse — first modern conscription; corps system; Napoleon's marshals as a meritocratic officer class
Economy
Continental System (blockade of Britain) reshaped European trade; Spanish silver flowed to fund both sides; Britain's industrial economy outproduced all rivals
Cost
British war debt rose from £244M (1793) to £834M (1815) — ~200% of GDP. France lost ~1.4M soldiers
Sources
- Clausewitz, On War
- Charles Esdaile, Napoleon's Wars